Argument

Argument activities for SPU

The following topics have argument activities to download
SPU 1
Health risks (Smoking and lung cancer)
Medical Ethics (Using animals to test medicines and Genetic testing and screening)
Alternative medicine (Constructing arguments in favour of alternative medicine and Analysing an article on alternative medicine)

SPU 2
Using fuels (Energy use)
Electricity Supplies (Decision making on nuclear power)
Air Quality (Air pollution)
Fuels and the Global Environment (Debate on global climate change and Biofuels).

Other sources
UPD8 have activities which specifically encourage argument skills.

Introduction - why argument?
If we had to decide on the most important of the aims of SPU many of us would probably choose; "the specification aims to encourage students to develop, and be able to express an informed personal point of view on issues concerning science and technology." The achievement of this single aim however requires a range of skills and knowledge. Amongst these skills are the ability to both evaluate arguments put forward by others and to develop ones own reasoned arguments. There is evidence that students need much more direct help to develop such skills, hence this project.

Quantity or Quality?
Poor argument skills are apparent in many exam answers and in coursework. On the web site we have many activities that serve as a stimulus to small group or whole class discussion. However we have put much less emphasis on the quality of the arguments developed by our students. Students do express opinions and they have grounds for their claims but they rarely use well-structured arguments to support their position. They do have skills in evaluating evidence and in using evidence to draw conclusions but they cannot always incorporate these skills into a debate.

Scope of this project
This project aims to produce materials that introduce the key features of a well-structured argument and give students practice in using these in their SPU work. A few draft materials are provided here. We hope that collaborative working will improve and expand these. The earlier activities are short, introducing the basic model. Later ones encourage development or analysis of longer arguments. A scheme for assessing the quality of an argument will also be available.

Teachers
Most of these draft materials have been written by just one person to get things started. We now need input from teachers to comment on anything including the basic model used, the activities and the assessment. We hope teachers will be able to develop and improve these materials and to provide their own ideas. Input on any aspect of the project, large or small is welcome.

Feedback to the project
Please contact us. We would like to hear your comments on any of the activities here or on the model used. If you have further ideas for further activities do let us have them. If you think there are particular needs which should have priority do tell us.

Model of argument
A variety of different models are available. We are suggesting the following.

• At the very minimum an argument must consist of a claim and at least one ground for accepting the claim. The nature of the grounds will depend on the type of claim. It may be data used as evidence for a factual conclusion or it may be an ethical principle to justify a decision. A good argument will include several grounds.
• The link between grounds and claim will often involve underlying assumptions, not made explicit but essential to the reasoning.
• The evidence used as grounds for the claim may be criticised, or different evidence may refute the claim.
• The assumptions involved may be criticised.
• These criticisms are known as rebuttals and will weaken the claim.
• Qualifications to the claim that may strengthen its acceptability,
• In many cases a counter-argument reaching a different conclusion is possible. This might use the same data but come to a different conclusion, it may use different data or it may involve different values.
• Counter argument is an important part of a debate between two or more people but the existence of counter-argument should also be acknowledged in any fully developed written argument, where it would then be rebutted.

• A detailed argument on a complex issue may involve several simple arguments building up to an overall claim. The strength of the overall argument will depend on the strength of the component parts.

Resources
The set of resources is designed to fit into the normal scheme of work for SPU, not to be stand-alone activities. Ideas are for short activities that can be used in specific topics to gradually develop argument skills. It assumes progression through the topics in something similar to that in the specification. Thus more complex argument skills are included in work on later issues.

To be added
Some possibilities for extending the range of activities beyond the fairly simple analyses suggested here include;

• A writing frame for longer arguments
• Ways of encouraging reflection on a debate
• Techniques for preparing for debate on issues where deeply held beliefs are involved
• A marking scheme for argument

Anyone is welcome to use this trial material but please contact us with your feedback and suggestions.

References

Levinson R. (2003). Teaching Bioethics to Young People. In Levinson R and Reiss M J (Eds), Key Issues in Bioethics. Routledge Falmer

Norris Stephen P, Phillips Linda M (2003), How Literacy in its Fundamental Sense is Central to Scientific Literacy. Science Education, 87, 224-240

Osborne J. Erduran S. Simon S. (2004). Ideas, Evidence and Argument in Science. Kings College London

Twenty First Century Science AC2.12c Having an Argument. Nuffield Curriculum Centre